Portal Space Systems will create a second factory to scale up production of high-performance in-space vehicles as it gears up for initial test flights in 2026.

The company announced at the Paris Air Show June 17 that it will establish a second factory, five kilometers from its current facilities in Bothell, Washington, for its Supernova vehicle. The new factory, spanning more than 4,600 square meters, is scheduled to open in late 2026.

The second facility will allow Portal to produce one Supernova spacecraft a month starting in 2027. Supernova is the spacecraft the company is developing that uses solar thermal propulsion to provide both high thrust and high delta V, or change in velocity.

“By expanding our footprint in Bothell, we’re doubling down on local talent, proximity to core operations, and a growing aerospace ecosystem supported by state leadership,” Jeff Thornburg, chief executive of Portal Space Systems, said in a statement.

SpaceX rocket being tested in Texas explodes, but no injuries reported. The company said the Starship “experienced a major anomaly” at about 11 p.m. while on the test stand preparing for the tenth flight test at Starbase, SpaceX’s launch site at the southern tip of Texas.

“A safety clear area around the site was maintained throughout the operation and all personnel are safe and accounted for,” SpaceX said in a statement on the social platform X.

It marked the latest in a series of incidents involving Starship rockets. On Jan. 16, one of the massive rockets broke apart in what the company called a “rapid unscheduled disassembly,” sending trails of flaming debris near the Caribbean. Two months later, Space X lost contact with another Starship during a March 6 test flight as the spacecraft broke apart, with wreckage seen streaming over Florida.

Following the back-to-back explosions, one of the 403-foot (123-metre) Starship rockets, launched from the southern tip of Texas, tumbled out of control and broke apart on March 27. SpaceX had hoped to release a series of mock satellites following liftoff, but that got nixed because the door failed to open all the way. Then the spacecraft began spinning and made an uncontrolled landing in the Indian Ocean.

At the time, SpaceX CEO Elon Musk called the launch “a big improvement” from the two previous demos and promised a much faster launch pace moving forward, with a Starship soaring every three to four weeks for the next three flights.

SpaceX said Wednesday night’s explosion posed no hazards to nearby communities. It asked people not to try to approach the site.

The company said it is working with local officials to respond to the explosion.

Astroscale, the space junk removal venture, announced a British government contract June 16 worth about $7 million to deploy a pair of cubesats in 2027 to monitor space weather while tracking other objects in low Earth orbit (LEO).

The Japanese company’s British subsidiary has ordered the satellites from U.K.-based Open Cosmos as part of the 5.15 million British pound contract.

The near-identical spacecraft would fly in close formation for the year-long Orpheus mission, equipped with a hyperspectral imaging sensor to detect and identify targets of interest, and four other payloads to study geophysical activity in the upper atmosphere.

The US Naval Research Laboratory, University of Bath and small satellite specialist Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. are developing the payloads focused on examining the ionosphere, where charged particles disturbed by solar activity can disrupt satellite signals, navigation systems and radio communications.

“Changes in space weather can have a critical impact on satellites which provide navigation aids, telecommunications and data transmission,” said Paul Hollinshead, CEO of the UK’s Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl).

“Sustained investment in space research in collaboration with our international partners strengthens the security of U.K. interests in space.”

Dstl, an executive agency of the U.K. Ministry of Defence, awarded the Orpheus contract via the Serapis framework managed by British aerospace contractor BAE Systems.

Astroscale said it would operate the Orpheus satellites, leveraging its rendezvous and proximity operations (RPO) expertise following an in-orbit servicing mission in 2021 that demonstrated its satellite capture technology.

“Whilst the nominal Orpheus mission is not an RPO mission, it requires two spacecraft to be flown in close formation using a lead-trail configuration,” an Astroscale spokesperson said via email.

“Astroscale’s flight experience of RPO missions makes them very well equipped to achieve formation flying in LEO, particularly when the operator needs to consider disturbances that can significantly impact the atmospheric drag.”

The three-year Dstl contract fully funds the project, including design, launch and operations.

#FCC highlights national security role in satellite licensing reforms . ARLINGTON, Va. — The Federal Communications Commission is reshaping how it regulates space systems, with national security emerging as a central driver alongside commercial innovation, a top agency official said June 16.

Speaking at the SAE Media Group’s Milsatcom USA conference, Jay Schwarz, chief of the FCC’s space bureau, outlined a series of ongoing reforms aimed at modernizing satellite licensing and opening new spectrum bands. While these efforts are often framed in economic terms, Schwarz said they also reflect a growing focus on supporting U.S. defense capabilities in space.

“A strong national defense very much motivates the work that we’re doing at the FCC,” Schwarz said.

The FCC’s space bureau oversees the licensing of satellites and ground stations, manages spectrum allocation for both geostationary and non-geostationary satellite systems, and regulates how U.S. companies operate in space. As private sector investment in space accelerates — particularly in low-Earth orbit broadband constellations like SpaceX’s Starlink — the FCC has taken steps to streamline approvals and improve coordination across government agencies, he said.

“We know how urgent it is for all of our warfighters to have secure, reliable communications for an increasingly contested space domain,” Schwarz said. “So I care about the economic benefits, but I also care deeply that America’s service members are equipped with what they need.”

One early result of this push is a reduction in the #FCC’s licensing backlog. Schwarz said the space bureau has reduced pending applications by 35 percent since January, including those for new space stations and ground infrastructure.

Modernizing regulations for non-geostationary satellite systems is another priority. The FCC is considering revising so-called “power limit” rules aimed at preventing interference between low-orbit constellations and traditional geostationary satellites and earth stations. Schwarz said these reforms could help pave the way for higher-throughput services that rival terrestrial broadband.

“Our hope is that this will be done in a way that ultimately we can get much faster fiber-like throughputs from space,” Schwarz said.

The agency is also weighing whether to open roughly 20,000 megahertz of new spectrum across several underutilized bands, including the 12 GHz, 42 GHz, 52 GHz, and W-band frequencies. Through a formal Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, the FCC is examining how best to modernize access to these bands for satellite communications, which could significantly expand capacity for both commercial and defense use.

The proposed reforms come amid global shifts in spectrum policy, as other nations move to enable next-generation satellite services. Schwarz said the FCC’s initiatives are intended to help keep the U.S. competitive in the rapidly evolving space domain.

“We want to make sure that there’s a wide variety of systems available from which the government can procure services,” he said. “If we supply more spectrum, then existing players, new players, big players, small players—they can all compete.”

Schwarz said FCC Chairman Brendan Carr has made these reforms a priority as the space economy becomes more integrated with national infrastructure and defense planning.

How two #satellites are mimicking total solar eclipses in space.

A pair of European satellites have created the first artificial solar eclipses by flying in precise and fancy formation, providing hours of on-demand totality for scientists.

The European Space Agency released the eclipse pictures at the Paris Air Show on Monday. Launched late last year, the orbiting duo have churned out simulated solar eclipses since March while zooming tens of thousands of miles (kilometres) above Earth.

Flying 492 feet (150 metres) apart, one satellite blocks the sun like the moon does during a natural total solar eclipse as the other aims its telescope at the corona, the sun’s outer atmosphere that forms a crown or halo of light.

It’s an intricate, prolonged dance requiring extreme precision by the cube-shaped spacecraft, less than 5 feet (1.5 metres) in size. Their flying accuracy needs to be within a mere millimeter, the thickness of a fingernail. This meticulous positioning is achieved autonomously through GPS navigation, star trackers, lasers and radio links.

Dubbed Proba-3, the US$210 million mission has generated 10 successful solar eclipses so far during the ongoing checkout phase. The longest eclipse lasted five hours, said the Royal Observatory of Belgium’s Andrei Zhukov, the lead scientist for the orbiting corona-observing telescope. He and his team are aiming for a wondrous six hours of totality per eclipse once scientific observations begin.

Scientists already are thrilled by the preliminary results that show the corona without the need for any special image processing, said Zhukov.

“We almost couldn’t believe our eyes,” Zhukov said in an email. “This was the first try, and it worked. It was so incredible.”

Zhukov anticipates an average of two solar eclipses per week being produced for a total of nearly 200 during the two-year mission, yielding more than 1,000 hours of totality. That will be a scientific bonanza since full solar eclipses produce just a few minutes of totality when the moon lines up perfectly between Earth and the sun — on average just once every 18 months.

The sun continues to mystify scientists, especially its corona, which is hotter than the solar surface. Coronal mass ejections result in billions of tons of plasma and magnetic fields being hurled out into space. Geomagnetic storms can result, disrupting power and communication while lighting up the night sky with auroras in unexpected locales.

While previous satellites have generated imitation solar eclipses — including the European Space Agency and NASA’s Solar Orbiter and Soho observatory — the sun-blocking disk was always on the same spacecraft as the corona-observing telescope. What makes this mission unique, Zhukov said, is that the sun-shrouding disk and telescope are on two different satellites and therefore far apart.

The distance between these two satellites will give scientists a better look at the part of the corona closest to the limb of the sun.

“We are extremely satisfied by the quality of these images, and again this is really thanks to formation flying” with unprecedented accuracy, ESA’s mission manager Damien Galano said from the Paris Air Show.

#China launches new seismo-electromagnetic #satellite with #European partners . China launched a second collaborative seismo-#electromagnetic satellite early Saturday, aimed at detecting electromagnetic precursors to natural disasters such as earthquakes.

A Long March 2D rocket lifted off at 3:56 a.m. Eastern (0756 UTC) June 14 from Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center in northwest China. Launch footage showed insulation tiles falling away from the rocket as it climbed into a clear blue sky above the spaceport, with hypergolic exhaust also visible.

The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC) announced launch success within 40 minutes of liftoff, revealing the mission to be carrying the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite-2 (CSES-2), also known as Zhangheng-2, named after a Han dynasty polymath.

CSES-2 is based on CSES-1, which launched in 2018 and developed in collaboration with Italy, but also features upgrades in terms of design lifetime and expanded observation capabilities. A new ionospheric photometer has been added to improve the satellite’s ability to analyze the ionosphere’s layered structure in greater detail.

Like CSES-1, the satellite will look for correlation between earthquakes and electron flux activity in the inner Van Allen belt.

“The satellite has a design life of six years and carries nine payloads, including an electric field detector developed by China and Italy and a high-energy particle detector developed by Italy,” according to the China National Space Administration (CNSA). Austria is also involved in the mission, with the Space Research Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IWF) providing a scalar magnetometer.

CSES-2 will monitor global electromagnetic fields, ionospheric and atmospheric conditions in near real-time, and detect electromagnetic anomalies linked to geological or human activities, as well as thunderstorm and lightning events. CSES-2 aims to enhance China’s early warning and risk assessment capabilities, and monitoring of natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and severe storms.

The satellite is intended to operate in a 507-kilometer-altitude sun-synchronous orbit, matching that of CSES-1, but with a phase difference of 180 degrees. U.S. Space Force space domain awareness cataloged an object associated with the June 14 launch in a closely matching orbit. CSES-2 is based on a 3-axis-stabilized CAST2000 platform from DFH Satellite Co., Ltd., under the umbrella of CASC.

The new satellite looks to build on the work of the first in the series. The CSES-1 satellite detected significant changes in electric and magnetic field oscillations, plasma density and energetic particles that correlate with seismic activity and thunderstorms, according to a paper published in the journal Earthquake Research Advances in January.

Africa is seeking a greater role in the global space economy following the official inauguration of the African Space Agency (AfSA) April 20. The ceremony marked the culmination of a decade-long effort to unify programs across 55 countries.

Headquartered in Egypt, the first African country to operate its own satellite in 1998, AfSA aims to coordinate and empower continental space activities through collaboration and shared resources.

As one of its initial actions, AfSA signed far-reaching cooperation agreements with ESA, the UAE Space Agency and Russia’s #Roscosmos.

Addressing African challenges

Over the past three decades, 18 African nations have collectively deployed more than 60 satellites. Yet, Africa’s space sector remains relatively small on the global stage and heavily dependent on foreign support.

African nations collectively allocated just $426 million for space activities in 2025, including contributions to AfSA, according to boutique consulting firm Space in Africa.

In contrast, ESA has an $8.7 billion budget for 2025, in addition to sizable space-related contributions from the European Union, while NASA’s fiscal year 2025 allocation alone reached $25.4 billion.

According to Space in Africa’s figures, the amount African nations allocated for 2025 is also down 7.73% year-on-year following economic pressures, shifting national priorities and some projects moving from construction to an operational phase.

Depreciation of national currencies against the U.S. dollar contributed to the headline decline. Space in Africa senior analyst Mustapha Iderawumi said some countries maintained or slightly increased their space budgets in local currencies.

Nigeria, for example, increased its local currency budget by 47.5% to 94.30 billion Nigerian Naira ($60 million), yet currency depreciation significantly reduced its dollar equivalent compared with previous years.
Managing foreign influence

Although annual space agency budgets across Africa remain modest, countries are increasingly leveraging financing from outside the continent to develop sovereign satellite capabilities.

Angola’s yearly space budget has consistently been under $5 million, Iderawumi noted, but in January its government took out a 225 million euro ($255 million) loan from a French investment bank to fund ANGEO-1, its inaugural Earth observation satellite.

And while European aerospace giant Airbus is building ANGEO-1, a new breed of manufacturer is gaining traction with smaller, cost-effective satellites in geostationary and low Earth orbit to help countries join the space community.

Last year, European microsatellite specialist EnduroSat announced plans to build Botswana’s inaugural satellite — Botsat-1, an Earth observation spacecraft based on a three-unit (3U) standard cubesat structure — in collaboration with a local university.

Botsat-1 is also part of a broader goal to build out a space hub in the country, where engineers from Botswana International University of Science and Technology would ultimately operate the satellite using software from EnduroSat.
Equitable space access

Facing the rapid expansion of Starlink and other major megaconstellations, AfSA arrives amid rising global pressure to ensure equitable access to limited orbital slots and radio frequencies.

South Africa, boasting the largest space budget on the continent, recently revised regulations to facilitate the entry of Starlink and other foreign communications providers, following a high-level diplomatic visit to the United States in May. The high cost of satellite equipment and subscriptions remains a substantial barrier to widespread adoption.

At the World Radiocommunication Conference in 2023, industry executives highlighted growing concerns from developing nations about being locked out from increasingly congested orbital environments.

One outcome of WRC-23 was a decision to formally study equitable procedures for allocating access to critical Q and V spectrum bands.

AfSA is also pursuing initiatives to enhance transparency, competitive bidding and equitable participation for space contractors in Africa.

But perhaps most importantly, advanced satellite technologies are broadly recognized as essential tools for strengthening the agricultural markets that serve as a cornerstone for many African economies.

According to the United Nations, about a fifth of Africa’s population faces food insecurity, with regional disparities prevalent across the continent.

Space also offers solutions for the continent’s considerable digital divide. With nearly two-thirds of Africans lacking broadband access, satellite services can efficiently reach underserved areas where geography and prohibitive ground telecoms infrastructure costs pose significant challenges.

AfSA’s success may be measured by how much it changes there.

This article first appeared in the June 2025 issue of SpaceNews Magazine with the title “Africa’s united space front.”

WASHINGTON — A year after the launch of a flawed crewed test flight of Boeing’s CST-100 Starliner, NASA has yet to determine the next mission for the spacecraft with mixed signals about the vehicle’s future.

In a statement June 6, NASA said it was still studying options for the next flight of Starliner, expected no earlier than early 2026. That includes whether that next flight will be crewed or uncrewed.

“NASA is assessing the earliest potential for a Starliner flight to the International Space Station in early 2026, pending system certification and resolution of Starliner’s technical issues,” the agency stated. “The agency is still evaluating whether Starliner’s next flight will be in a crew or cargo configuration.”

The comments came a year to the day after Starliner docked with the ISS on the Crew Flight Test (CFT) mission. That docking took place despite the failure of several thrusters that, for a time, put the ability of Starliner to safely dock in question. The problems with the thrusters, along with helium leaks detected in flight, led NASA to decide in August 2024 to return Starliner uncrewed, requiring NASA astronauts Suni Williams and Butch Wilmore to remain on the station until coming back on a Crew Dragon in March.

Second ispace lunar lander presumed lost.

Resilience, the second mission by Japanese company ispace, likely crashed attempting a landing on the moon June 5.

Resilience was scheduled to land at 3:17 p.m. Eastern at Mare Frigoris, a region at about 60 degrees north latitude on the near side of the moon. Once on the surface, the lander was designed to operate for a lunar day, or about two weeks, until sunset causes the solar-powered lander to shut down.

While ispace said the initial phases of the landing attempt went as planned, telemetry displayed on the company’s webcast indicated that the lander reached the surface about one minute and 45 seconds before the scheduled landing time, with a reported speed of 187 kilometers per hour, far too fast for a safe landing. Telemetry was then lost, or no longer displayed, and the company ended the webcast about 25 minutes later with no updates on the lander’s status.

In a statement issued about five hours after the scheduled landing, the company acknowledged that Resilience was likely lost. “The laser rangefinder used to measure the distance to the lunar surface experienced delays in obtaining valid measurement values. As a result, the lander was unable to decelerate sufficiently to reach the required speed for the planned lunar landing,” ispace stated.

“Based on these circumstances, it is currently assumed that the lander likely performed a hard landing on the lunar surface,” the company concluded. It added there had been no contact with the lander after the scheduled landing time.

“Given that there is currently no prospect of a successful lunar landing, our top priority is to swiftly analyze the telemetry data we have obtained thus far and work diligently to identify the cause,” Takeshi Hakamada, founder and chief executive of ispace, said in the statement.

The company released the statement at the same time as Hakamada and other ispace executives held a press conference on Tokyo. They provided few additional technical details about the failed landing, stating that they needed to do more analysis to identify the root cause. They declined to speculate on those potential root causes.

They added, though, that the problem appeared to be different from the company’s first lander, similar in design to Resilience, which crashed in an April 2023 landing. The company attributed that failure to a software problem that caused the spacecraft to believe it was on the surface when it was still at an altitude of five kilometers.

“There are different phenomena that we are observing, so we have to look at the root cause in more detail,” said Ryo Ujiie, chief technology officer of ispace, at the briefing. He noted later in the briefing that the laser rangefinder on Resilience was of a different design than the one on Mission 1 because the vendor had discontinued the earlier model.
Mission overview

Resilience launched on a Falcon 9 Jan. 15, sharing the launch with Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost 1 lunar lander. While Firefly’s lander made a successful landing on the moon March 2, Resilience followed a low-energy trajectory to reduce propellant requirements, making a lunar flyby Feb. 14 that sent it on a trajectory that took it 1.1 million kilometers from the moon before returning.

Resilience entered orbit around the moon May 6, performing a series of maneuvers in subsequent weeks to place it in a final circular orbit at an altitude of 100 kilometers from which it would make its descent to the lunar surface.

The lander, with a dry mass of 340 kilograms, carried several payloads, such as a water electrolyzer, a food production experiment from Japanese companies and a deep space radiation probe from National Central University in Taiwan. It also included a “commemorative alloy plate” from a branch of Japanese entertainment company Bandai Namco and a memory disk from UNESCO.

The biggest payload was Tenacious, a five-kilogram rover developed by ispace’s European subsidiary. The rover was equipped with cameras and a scoop, which would be used to collect regolith. The company would then transfer ownership of that regolith to NASA under a $5,000 contract awarded in 2020, part of an effort by the agency to establish precedence for rights to space resources.

Tenacious also carried a small model house called The Moonhouse, created by a team led by Swedish artist Mikael Genberg. It is an art project that Genberg, at a briefing June 4, said will help create a new perspective on “what it is to be human, what life is all about.” Tenacious would have deployed The Moonhouse onto the lunar surface and take images of it.
Future missions

More lunar missions are on tap for ispace. The company’s U.S. subsidiary is building a new model of lander, called Apex 1.0, for a NASA Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) mission led by Draper and scheduled for launch in 2027, called Mission 3 by ispace. In Japan, ispace is working on a separate new lander design, called Series 3, for its Mission 4 in 2027 that is supported by an $80 million award from the Japanese government.

Because the landers are a different design from Resilience, ispace executives said it was unclear what impact the crash would have on them. However, they remained committed to flying them.

There are few companies capable of developing lunar landers, noted Jumpei Nozaki, chief financial officer of ispace, at the briefing, but many customers who want to fly their payloads on them, giving ispace a “competitive edge” if can demonstrate a successful landing.

“If we can succeed in these missions,” he said of Mission 3 and 4, “then we can show our ability to our customers.”

“It’s hard to land on the moon, technically,” Hakamada said. “We know it’s not easy. It’s not something that everyone can do.”

He noted, though, the successful lunar landings by American companies as well as the Japanese space agency JAXA. “We know it’s hard, but an important point is that it’s not impossible.”

Those other successes, he suggested, would serve as motivation for ispace to find and correct the problems that led to the failed Resilience landing. “The most important thing is to find out the cause for the second failure,” he said. “We have to use that to make Mission 3 and Mission 4 a success.”

The new attack surface: from space to smartphone . Imagine having seamless mobile broadband access anywhere on Earth, from the most remote deserts and oceans to disaster zones, all without the need for cell towers. That’s the promise of direct-to-cell (D2C) satellite communication, a breakthrough technology that allows ordinary, unmodified, smartphones to connect directly with satellites in low Earth orbit. Pioneered by companies like AST SpaceMobile, Lynk Global and SpaceX’s Starlink, this tech is set to change global connectivity. But as the barriers to connectivity fall, a flood of cyber threats emerge.
What is D2C and why should I care?

Traditional cellular networks rely on dense, ground-based infrastructure: ugly cell towers, fibre optic cables and data centers. D2C turns this model on its head. Satellites function like flying cell towers, using standard radio bands to connect directly with everyday smartphones, no satellite phone and no spoiled views (sorry astronomers!).

The benefits are clear: universal coverage, faster disaster response and access for underserved regions. But with the race to deployment ongoing, complex cybersecurity threats stretching from the screen to the sky may be overlooked by engineers who are simply moving too fast to see them.
The expanding attack surface

D2C systems face distinct and unique threats. Attackers don’t need physical proximity to interfere and broadcasts from orbit can be jammed or spoofed by anybody with modest technical gear. It’s not a question of if, it’s a question of when threat actors, like nation-states, test their luck on these systems.

The consequences of a D2C breach are profound. A targeted outage could disrupt emergency services, cut students off from remote learning or cripple business operations in remote regions. In developing countries, D2C satellites may become a primary method of internet access for millions of people — making any cyber event not just a technical hiccup but a social, economic and even public health crisis.
Key vulnerabilities to watch

1. Signal jamming & spoofing: Jamming floods a satellite’s receivers with gobbledygook, cutting off legitimate users. Spoofing mimics real signals to hijack data or trick devices into unsafe connections.

2. Telemetry, tracking & control (TT&C) exploits: TT&C systems manage the satellite’s vital functions. If breached, an attacker could redirect, disable or even take control of a satellite.

3. Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attacks: Intercepting data between the user and ground station. It’s complex but possible, especially if encryption or routing is weak.

4. Physical threats: Cybersecurity doesn’t stop at software. Anti-satellite weapons, space debris, or directed energy attacks like space lasers could knock satellites offline or damage components.

5. Ground station weaknesses: These Earth-based links often run on cloud platforms, leaving them exposed to phishing, unpatched systems or misconfigurations.

6. Supply chain attacks: Satellites are built from parts sourced worldwide. A malicious chip or compromised firmware update could introduce vulnerabilities.

7. Human factors: Insider threats remain a wildcard. A careless administrator, a disgruntled engineer or a poorly secured login could unravel the best technical defences.
Recommendations

Securing these constellations requires a security by design approach, built from the ground up to provide protections against all threats — even the ones that haven’t been discovered yet. As these systems are global by design, an international framework should be created. This approach requires layered, coordinated and future proof action. Drawing from the principles of defence-in-depth, practical use cases and the broader threat landscape, the following proposals outline how regulatory bodies and commercial companies can work together to build resilient and secure systems.

1. Creation of an International Framework: As satellite constellations expand, securing them requires more than isolated national efforts. A unified, multi-stakeholder framework is essential, one that includes space agencies, defense bodies such as the U.S. Space Force, commercial operators like Starlink or AST SpaceMobile and regulators.

A start could be a cybersecurity council facilitated by the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). This body could share threat intelligence and outline global standards. Modelled on organizations like the International Civil Aviation Organization, the council would align national and commercial actors around shared protocols, using frameworks like NIST and ISO/IEC 27001 to ensure accountability and reduce fragmentation.

2. Defense-in-depth architectures: A defense-in-depth model that uses multiple layers of security controls to protect data and information should be foundational in all space system architectures. In practice, this means that engineers developing these systems should install additional layers of security to delay, detect and deny attacks.

Key elements include:

AI-driven anomaly detection at both satellite and ground levels.
Moving target defenses that rotate system configurations to reduce predictability.
Segmenting networks to isolate damage and contain lateral movement during an incident.
Redundant ground stations for use in case of compromise to minimize downtime.

3. Modernize cryptographic approaches: According to Edward Smith of the Defense Department’s Cybersecurity & Information Systems Information Analysis Center (CSIAC), “Encryption enhances security in space networks, carefully considering its impact on performance and developing advanced encryption methods are essential to mitigate potential vulnerabilities.”

Operators should prioritize upgrading existing systems with post-quantum cryptographic algorithms, implement strong key management practices and adopt zero-trust architectures to mitigate present-day risks while preparing for the eventual rise of quantum attackers.

In time, the industry can move beyond traditional public key infrastructure models that assume robust hardware and terrestrial conditions. For cubesats and small-scale systems, lightweight encryption schemes and chaos-based algorithms that offer better performance with lower power and processing demands.

4. Harden ground stations and TT&C links: Ground infrastructure remains one of the most targeted points in space communication networks. The 2022 KA-SAT incident, where Russia-linked hackers disabled satellite modems is a prime example. The operator is responsible for ensuring that ground stations and TT&C links are adequately secure, employing techniques like:

Deploying digital beamforming with phased array antennas to reduce signal interception.
Implementing end-to-end encryption for TT&C traffic.
Continuously monitoring command traffic for unauthorized or anomalous patterns.
Implementing secure physical security surrounding all ground stations including staff trained on social engineering detection techniques and multi-factor authentication.

These measures should be validated through red-teaming exercises and simulated disruptions.

5. Mission readiness and workforce training: Cybersecurity should not be treated as a back-office IT concern. It must be embedded into launch planning, mission operations and workforce development. While regulators should establish a realistic baseline minimum for cybersecurity posture across their respective space sectors, organizations should not wait for mandates to act. A proactive approach is essential to ensuring the maximum level of readiness.

All mission operators and contractors should be trained to a common cybersecurity standard, such as NIST’s NICE framework or ISO/IEC 27001’s audit guidelines. Tabletop exercises and simulation-based training like mimicking a spoofed control command or a ground station DDoS should be recurring elements of preparedness protocols.

6. Conduct annual audits and adopt industry-specific metrics: Regular internal and external cybersecurity audits are essential for resilience. These should be commissioned by the operator to test their posture and go beyond compliance checklists to include penetration testing, zero-day scenario analysis and evaluation of incident response effectiveness. Metrics that can be audited include:

Employee resistance to social engineering or phishing attempts.
Mean time to detect satellite anomalies.
Mean time to respond to known threats.
Intrusion attempt frequency per mission.

7. Align incentives for operators: To drive broader compliance, regulatory bodies and insurers could align financial and operational incentives with strong cybersecurity performance. Satellite operators that demonstrate adherence to cybersecurity baselines in areas like zero-trust architecture and end-to-end encryption could receive reduced insurance premiums and faster regulatory clearance for launches. This approach would reward proactive behavior while discouraging corner-cutting on security, in addition to the penalties already in place in most countries with regards to data breaches.

8. Invest in threat research: All involved parties with means should invest in R&D areas that future-proof systems, Secure software defined networking for flexible satellite-ground links and formal verification methods for satellite firmware and chip components. Completing this work collaboratively across academic labs, defense research agencies and private innovation centers can avoid redundant or siloed knowledge.

9. Create a shared incident database for the space sector: Space operators should contribute anonymized data on cyber incidents to a shared threat intelligence platform modelled after aviation’s ASRS. Such a database would support:

Early warning systems for new vulnerabilities.
Trends analysis across vendors and missions.
Identification of systemic failures before they become endemic.

Managing this platform under a neutral party like UNOOSA or the Space ISAC would ensure buy-in and minimize reputational risks that might otherwise discourage disclosure.

D2C satellite communication is likely going to redefine how the world connects, and it’s coming sooner than you may think. But its success hinges on more than rocket science. It depends on engineers and security professionals ensuring they can build systems that are not just cutting edge, but resilient. Cybersecurity isn’t just a nice-to-have, it’s mission-critical. Failure to properly implement security measures may result in more than individual mission failures, it could destroy public trust in critical infrastructure, create extensive monetary ramifications and cause ripples across global networks dependent on satellite data.

Jamie Munro holds a First-Class BSc Honours degree in Cyber Security and Networks from Glasgow Caledonian University and is currently an IT Engineer working in the UK Public Sector.